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Return to Literature Home Page To what extent does the poetry of T.S. Eliot reflect a sense of cultural crisis?

By Craig Roberts In the latter part of the nineteenth century and in the beginning of this, the twentieth, science and other academic fields advanced to such extremes that cultural presuppositions underwent a re-evaluation. "Men and bits of paper,[were] whirled by the cold wind", and thrown into a maelstrom of intellectual crisis. As society re-structured its intellectual framework, new philosophies arose which attempted to make sense of existence (Bergson, Bradley, Freud and Nietzsche, to name but a few) and several of these philosophies may be traced within Eliot's poetry, for they are the tools for understanding the crisis. I feel it necessary to warn readers that what I am about to offer is "a world of speculation"; and my interpretation of some of these philosophies may be tainted by reading them in translation. Nonetheless, it is impossible to gauge the sense of crisis within Eliot's poetry, without some prior understanding of these conflicting ideologies. Eliot was confronted by a profoundly disturbing era, one full of intellectual turmoil. In `Burnt Norton' he presents the reader with this sense of intellectual anguish, for it is Desication of the world of sense, Evacuation of the world of fancy, Inoperancy of the world of spirit. and in short, a world made unstable by developing knowledge. However, despite the intellectual crisis of the poetry, there is always a current of domestic scepticism; as Eliot muses in `Burnt Norton', there are new processes of thought, "But to what purpose / Disturbing the dust on a bowl of rose-leaves / I do not know". Nowhere is this conflict of domesticity and intellectualism more prominent than in `The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock'. It is an ambivalent poem, full of uncertainties and domestic imagery; but Prufrock's intellectualism -his desire to squeeze "the moment into a ball / To roll it towards some overwhelming question" -is marred by his domestic, mundane considerations of life: he lacks "the strength to force the moment to its crisis". Indeed, this antagonism between the intellectual and the domestic, between the abstract and the real, indicates that such profound and "overwhelming" questions may, in actuality, prove nothing more than unnecessary considerations, for they are not required to continue a domestic life of daily routine. Prufrock has a preoccupation with the "bald spot in the middle of [his] hair" and, thus, is engrossed by his own mortality. Perhaps the desire to answer some profound question is the desire to reconcile "the agony / Of death and birth", to form some idea of what lies beyond the human condition, beyond the sphere of the domestic. Eliot attempted to understand the human condition through various philosophical means: it is my intention to demonstrate how his poetry exemplifies the crisis of this philosophical climate. During January and February of 1911, Eliot was at the College de France, attending lectures by Bergson on the nature of time. Bergson pioneered the theory that "all time is simultaneous": it is a flux which encompasses all; and "the true nature of reality is the process of life itself and not an intellectual construct extrapolated from it". That is to say, that `past' and `future' are merely concepts which allow us to place ourselves within a perceived sequence of time. The past never obtains closure, and the future does not have a tangible existence outside of the present, for "Duration is a unity, consisting of all possible times and places, and at the same time constantly changing". In `The Dry Salvages' time "ceases to be a mere sequence" and exemplifies these Bergsonian principles; and, indeed, You shall not think "the past is finished" Or "the future is before us" for `time' is an amalgamation of past, present, and future, and "the past is all deception, / The future futureless" because only time in flux is a tangible experience. As Eliot comments in his criticism: the historical sense involves a perception, not only of the pastness of the past, but of its presence; the historical sense compels a man to unite not merely with his own generation in his bones, but with a feeling that the whole of the literature of Europe has a simultaneous existence and composes a simultaneous order. Perhaps this throws some light on patterns of allusion within Eliot's poetry. In `The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock' and `The Wasteland', we see a re-emergence of Shakespeare's Hamlet. Prufrock muses "I am not Prince Hamlet, nor was meant to be" -the latter words being an echo of Hamlet's "To be, or not to be" (III.i, 56), -and in `A Game of Chess' we see an echo of Ophelia in "Good night, ladies, good night, sweet ladies". If we accept Bergsonism as the principle drive behind Eliot's poetry, then we can see allusion as a tool for combining the past within the present: in short, allusion becomes a tool for destroying the term `tradition', because tradition relies on sequential notions of time. There can be no `past' literature, if the past is encapsulated within the present. However, by 1913, Eliot was at Harvard writing criticism of Bergsonís theories, and thus it is unreasonable to expect his poetry to consistently exemplify Bergsonism. Indeed, by `Gerontion' there is a notable development to a more Bradleyan theory of existence; and herein lies the crisis of the poetry: there is a conflict and overlap of ideology which makes the poetry profoundly ambivalent. Bradley pioneered the systematic nature of truth: that truth is gained from an understanding of the `absolute' (which is the ruling context that contains all other contexts and actions). To use a simple analogy, consider a jigsaw puzzle. One may gain a limited understanding of each piece (which is an individual context of human actions) but only when the pieces are joined can full understanding be achieved. The completed puzzle is the `absolute', and each piece may only be understood in relation to the other pieces. The whole is qualified by its parts. The critic Jewel Spears Brooker, in Mastery and Escape: T.S. Eliot and the Dialectic of Modernism, offers a detailed reading of `Gerontion' in light of a Bradleyan dynamic. Brooker reads Gerontion's house, as a house within a house, a context within a context, developing ad infinitum to create an absolute. The first house is the "decayed house" of Gerontion himself, then `History' becomes a house with "cunning passages, contrived corridors" and finally the "Tenants of the house" become the "Thoughts of a dry brain", turning the human skull into a house-metaphor. As Gerontion's thoughts are the real tenants, and his brain the real house, all the other houses become parcelled within his reflections of "an old man in a dry month": the poem can be thought of as a Russian-doll, internalising smaller pieces which qualify its whole. Thus Brooker argues that "the whole [of `Gerontion'], of which the last lines are a part, must be in readers' minds throughout" the reading in order to arrive at an absolute understanding. However, if the `whole' of the poem is necessary to understand its parts, then Brooker is ironically countering Bradley's principles. She is suggesting that an `absolute' reading of the poem is necessary to distinguish and qualify the parts and fragments which create it; but although this is true, to an extent, she is also arguing that a new reader must bring the unread `future' parts of the poem to a present reading in order to establish its meaning: In essence, a new reader must be conscious of the poem in flux, as an amalgamation of past, present and future fragments -a Bergsonian dynamic. However, although Brooker has missed the mark in her reading of Bradley and `Gerontion', that is not to say that Eliot never exemplifies Bradleyan philosophy. Indeed, using a Bradleyan dynamic, patterns of allusion within `The Wasteland', take yet another twist. In `A Game of Chess', there is an allusion to Ariel's song `Full fadom five thy father lies' from `The Tempest' (I.ii, 397) with the line, "Those are pearls that were his eyes", and any reader of Shakespeare will know that Ariel is singing about drowning. Equally, the allusion to Ophelia, "Good night, ladies, good night, sweet ladies", is about drowning, too, for its original counterpart in Hamlet precedes her tragic death in the "glassy stream" (IV.vii, 166). The watery allusions do not all stem from Shakespeare, however, for there are also echoes of Conrad's `Heart of Darkness' within the poem: The river sweats Oil and tar The barges drift With the turning tide and also with: "The jungle crouched, humped in silence". Any reader of Conrad will recall the character of Kurtz -the man with the lunacy or clarity to lament "The horror!" of human existence; and one must also recall that it was Hamlet who mused: "What piece of work is a man, / How noble in reason, how infinite in faculties" (II.ii, 303-4). Such profound lamentations alter the colour of The Wateland. Thus Eliotís poem is given shape, form and meaning, not merely intrinsically, but also from the terms of literary tradition and history (one can never fully appreciate part IV, `Death by Water', without prior knowledge of the watery allusions). Ostensibly, The Wasteland has no overt surface pattern or unity, unless one applies the meanings of the echoed texts: that is to say, "it is axiomatic that the all-inclusive, and ever-developing whole is qualified and altered by its terms". To put it more succinctly: `The Wasteland' can be appreciated as an artefact with its own integrity: but it can never be understood without applying to it the contexts of the allusions; for `The Wasteland' is but the frame of the jigsaw puzzle, and the literary echoes, the pieces: and only when all are brought together is their an absolute, a coherent meaning. However, I am going to proceed in this discussion by discounting both Bergson and Bradley's theories. Although such readings do have their uses, to regard Eliot's poetry in such a rigid fashion neglects several undercurrents from other ideologies. Indeed, it does not matter how I approach Eliot's philosophy, for as Eliot asserts: "what a poem means is as much what it means to others as what it means to the author" and, therefore, Eliot's education under Bergson is not an adequate motive for pursuing Bergsonian analysis, nor of Bradleyan analysis for that matter -despite Eliot's Harvard studies. Therefore, this discussion will now attend to Buddhism and Nietzsche, and the themes of reincarnation and recurrence in Eliot's poetry -for they are parts of the philosophical conflict, too. Eliot flirts with Buddhism in several poems, although one should be wary of reading too much into such allusions. As Eliot warns, there is a "danger in the association of poetry with mysticism, that of leading the reader to look in poetry for religious satisfactions.". Indeed, those who see Eliot's poetry as inherently Buddhist are mistaken, for the principles of Buddhism are not consistently maintained. The epigram at the start of `The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock', taken from Dante, tells of a damned spirit who will not reveal his secrets if the hearer can return to earth; but as he does tell all, there is the subtle implication that reincarnation is impossible. Reincarnation is necessary in Buddhism, for an individual will progress through several incarnations before learning all lessons and reaching Nirvana -which is "the still point of the turning world". Time is thus the healer of all mistakes in a Buddhist's life; that individual simply returns ad infinitum until all their lessons are learnt. However, in Eliotís poetry "time is no healer", and there is no "escaping from the past / Into different lives", and thus reincarnation is overtly opposed -which proves highly problematic for a Buddhist interpretation. However, some Buddhist principles do operate within the poems. The cyclical nature of life, of the seasons, and "Keeping the rhythm" maintained, is a key issue, for the "slow rotation" of the world is a thing "suggesting permanence". There is The time of the seasons and the constellations The time of milking and the time of harvest The time of the coupling of man and woman And that of beasts and all of these times move in an eternal cycle. It is interesting to note that the philosophies expressed by Eliot's poetry, often offer some recompense for the concept of death -eternal reincarnation, time as a constant flux, the cycle and return of life, etc: all attempt to offer some form of life after death. As Eliot muses, "In my end is my beginning" -a Buddhist would see this as the end of one life offering passage into the next, into a new beginning -a Christian, however, would see it as death offering passage to Heaven. Thus "we have here the problem of religious faith and its substitutes" -in other words: the crisis of modernism is the crisis of finding new ideologies and faiths to replace the old. Science disproved religion, with Darwin's `Origin of Species' (1859) and later, with quantum-physics; and its results were intellectual and religious turmoil. Buddhism is Eliot's substitute faith. However, the majority of Eliot's poetry that is perceived as Buddhist, is in fact an echo of Nietzsche's philosophy. Nietzsche believed that all time recurs ad infinitum exactly as it first occurred, that "The eternal hour-glass of existence will be turned again and again" for all time. To put it more succinctly: "all things recur eternally and we ourselves with them, and we have already existed an infinite number of times before and all things with us.". However, this is not an adaptation of Buddhist reincarnation (although it is, to some extent, a parallel with Christian resurrection) for although man will return eternally, it is "not to a new life or a better life or a similar life" but to an "identical and self-same life." This philosophy is most directly addressed in `The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock', where the persona speculates about the nature of his days: I have known them all already, known them all- Have known the evenings, mornings, afternoons, and thus suggests an eternal pattern of recurrence within his life. Indeed, when Prufrock states, "I am formulated", he is suggesting that is life is pre-ordered, controlled, predicted in a formulaic pattern -in short, a repeated sequence -but he is also illustrating the impact of science on the era. Prufrockís life is "formulated" (a word with the resonance of a scientific term) and his insecurities are not merely caused by the women which ìcome and goî, but by the impact of contemporary scientific advances on his mind. Eliot's poetry, one might argue, depicts a poetical form of eternal recurrence. In `The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock', we are presented with The yellow fog that rubs its back upon the window-panes, The yellow smoke that rubs its muzzle on the window-panes and the second line, at a grammatical level, offers the syntactic return of the first. Certainly the adjectives are different, but the grammar patterns are identical: and they emerge later with the echo of the fog "rubbing its back upon the window-panes". One might rationally explain this grammatical similarity as a loose rhyme scheme, as the underlying pattern of the poem; and this would be a valid explanation, were it not for the inconsistent use of such a rhyme scheme: thus we must accept the grammatical pattern, not as rhyme but as return. Indeed, using the theory of eternal recurrence, patterns of allusion within `The Wasteland' and Eliot's other poems, do not solely qualify the meanings of the poetry in which they occur; instead they actually return the literature of the past to the literature of the present. The Hamlet of Shakespeare undergoes eternal recurrence in `The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock', just as the text of Conrad's `Heart of Darkness' is given eternal recurrence in `The Wasteland' -along with Dante, several myths, and numerous other poets. The literature of the present, as Eliot mused in `Tradition and the Individual Talent', is conscious of the literature of the past, of its place in tradition and history: in essence, the literature of the past will ebb like a recurring tide in the literature of the future -it will not, and can not cease to exist. Eternal recurrence is a worrying concept: for there will be "No end to the withering of withered flowers" and all which is sad, distressing and terrifying is destined to recur again (a frightening thought in light of the first great war). In the poetry, particularly in `The Hollow Men', Eliot ruminates on this terror: Between the conception And the creation Between the emotion And the response Falls the shadow All actions, all concepts and all emotions, are destined to be overshadowed by eternal recurrence: how may one make decisions and choices if all life is simply a repeated sequence from the past, if it is left indelibly stained by what went before? This is Eliot's "shadow": the burden of recurrence. Such a burden lends a frightening tone to Prufrock's insistence that "There will be time, there will be time", for it is a chilling emphasis of life's infinity. Indeed, the burden of eternal recurrence throws some light on these ambiguous lines taken from `The Four Quartets': say that the end precedes the beginning, And the end and the beginning were always there Before the beginning and after the end, For "the end" of an original life, prefigures "the beginning" of its repetition; and each subsequent repetition of that life, each recurrence, is prefigured by both "the end and the beginning" of its original. Consider my interpretation in the following terms: an artist paints a picture (this is the original occurrence of that work) and subsequent prints are made of that picture (these are the recurrences). Each print of the picture is prefigured by the artist's creation of the original -that is to say, the creation of each print is shadowed by the original act of painting: this is the germ of Eliot's above lines, seen from my interpretation. However, if the line which proceeds them is included for interpretation, then their meaning becomes complicated and problematic, for all is always now and this is more an echo of Bergson than Nietzsche: that time is a flux of what has gone before, what is yet to come, and what is now -which may be seen in `Burnt Norton' in the lines Time present and time past Are both perhaps present in time future And time future contained in time past. Ultimately, however, this does not oppose any reading of the poetry; for it remains my primary intention to reveal how the different philosophies entwine, interplay and conflict within the poems. Indeed, at an intrinsic level the philosophies are also unstable: while Buddhist reincarnation is, for the most part, doubted in the poetry, Prufrock still holds the belief that life has the capacity for a "hundred visions and revisions", and revisions of past errors are required to reach Nirvana. Thus the crisis of Eliot's poetry is the crisis of conflicting ideologies, vague faiths, and general scepticism. What causes this crisis is not entirely the modernist age. Eliot's poems express a deep level of anxiety about racial minorities. In `Gerontion', a "Jew squats on the window-sill" who happens to be "the owner" of the house. Power and money lie with the ethnic minority, with the Jew "Spawned in some estaminet of Antwerp" -and under no circumstances can a "Spawned" race be viewed as something wholesome or natural. But one can not escape the fact that Gerontion's house "is a decayed house" coming apart and crumbling to nothing: Eliot's poetry is possessed with anti-Semitic anxiety and fear, that Jews will ultimately prove the decay and ruin of the intellectual West -the germ of fascist thought that would eventually lead to the holocaust of world-war II. Eliot appears aware of the futility of attempting to understand reality and existence. Although "the evening is spread out against the sky / like a patient etherised upon a table" it will be impossible to dissect or treat the ether, the universe, as something like a human "patient" -after all, infinity is not understood by surgeons. But Eliot's lines do reveal this bizarre drive of humanity to understand, to ask an "overwhelming question" which Eliot begs "Oh, do not ask". Indeed, "abstract knowledge is a malignancy consuming western culture" and it certainly consumes Eliot's poetry and leaves an indelible mark. In `The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock', we see that the results of this drive for knowledge, this will to power (as Nietzsche once called it) are profound insecurities. Prufrock continually asks, Do I dare? Do I dare Disturb the universe? The profundity of the question is expressed by the interruption it poses to the poem's dynamic; from long, convoluted lines, the poem changes dramatically to these short lines which beg its question -and what a profound question it is too! Not merely because it encapsulates the entire drive of modern science, the drive for knowledge at any price; but because it dares challenge the right to ask such searching, ìoverwhelmingî questions. As Nietzsche mused, the vast majority do not find it contemptible to believe this or that, and to live in accordance with this belief without first being aware of the ultimate and securest reasons for and against it and Prufrock's doubt over the right to ask questions, in some ways, reflects Nietzsche's view. Scientists pursue science and knowledge without first asking why, why one should "Disturb the universe?". Indeed, from Nietzsche's perspective, Prufrock is the only persona in Eliot's poetry that comes close to developing an intellectual conscience; but whether this is due to an awareness of profound issues, or a lack of "strength to force the moment to its crisis"; or whether he is merely made to "digress" by women: I do not know, nor dare to speculate. What I will assert, however, is that Eliot's poetry is conscious of the continual development of knowledge; and that knowledge is merely a perception of the universe: that "what is actual is actual only for one time / And only for one place" because new philosophies will always arise to challenge the old, and so the `truth' to one generation will be lies to another: Had they deceived us, Or deceived themselves, the quiet-voiced elders, Bequeathing us merely a receipt for deceit? -which strikes me as an echo of Nietzsche's comment: "if we are deceived, are we not for that very reason deceivers?". Indeed, in some poems, Eliot actually appears to desire patience and ignorance; the patience to accept that the universe's secrets will never unfold in one lifetime, and the ignorance to accept that there are things which we will never truly understand: Suffer us not to mock ourselves with falsehood Teach us to care and not to care Teach us to sit still Even among these rocks For it is a sad fact that "human kind / Cannot bear very much reality" and we can, at best, expect little more than a slight resolution of life's "partial horror" for there is At best, only a limited value In the knowledge derived from experience. The knowledge imposes a pattern, and falsifies, For the pattern is new in every movement And every movement is a new and shocking Valuation of all we have been. Consequently, we must rejoice, as Eliot did, "having to construct something / Upon which to rejoice." Rejoicing is a religious exaltation; but in a world where God is atoms and microbes, upon what do we rejoice? Eliot's poetry is not merely expressive of the intellectual and religious crisis of modernism; it leaves behind with it, in the readers mind, a strange distaste, a wonder why man stills seek for a "Conclusion to all that / Is inconclusible". Eliot's poetic is not aimed at the crisis of modern culture, but at the problem of understanding that culture. Bibliography Jewel Spears Brooker, Mastery and Escape: T.S. Eliot and the Dialectic of Modernism (University of Massachusetts Press, 1994) T.S. Eliot, Collected Poems 1909-1962 (Faber and Faber, 1974) T.S. Eliot, Selected Prose of T.S. Eliot (Faber and Faber, 1975) T.S. Eliot, The Use of Poetry and the Use of Criticism (Faber and Faber, 1964) A Nietzsche Reader, translated by R.J. Hollingdale (Penguin Books, 1977) William Skaff, The Philosophy of T.S. Eliot: From Skepticism to a Surrealist Poetic 1909-1927 (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986) _ ëBurnt Nortoní III, from The Four Quartets _ ëBurnt Nortoní I, from The Four Quartets _ ëBurnt Nortoní III, from The Four Quartets _ ëBurnt Nortoní I, from The Four Quartets _ ëThe Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrockí, from Prufrock and Other Observations _ ëThe Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrockí, from Prufrock and Other Observations _ ëThe Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrockí, from Prufrock and Other Observations _ ëEast Cokerí III, from The Four Quartets _ William Skaff, The Philosophy of T.S. Eliot: From Skepticism to a Surrealist Poetic, p.25 _ William Skaff, The Philosophy of T.S. Eliot: From Skepticism to a Surrealist Poetic, p.24 _ William Skaff, The Philosophy of T.S. Eliot: From Skepticism to a Surrealist Poetic, p.25 _ ëThe Dry Salvagesí II, from The Four Quartets _ ëThe Dry Salvagesí III, from The Four Quartets _ ëThe Dry Salvagesí I, from The Four Quartets _ T.S. Eliot, Selected Prose of T.S. Eliot, p.38 _ ëThe Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrockí, from Prufrock and Other Observations _ ëA Game of Chessí, from The Wasteland _ Jewel Spears Brooker, in Mastery and Escape: T.S. Eliot and the Dialectic of Modernism (University of Massachusetts Press, 1994) _ ëGerontioní, from Poems 1920 _ Jewel Spears Brooker, in Mastery and Escape: T.S. Eliot and the Dialectic of Modernism, p.90 _ ëA Game of Chessí, from The Wasteland _ ëA Game of Chessí, from The Wasteland _ ëThe Fire Sermoní, from The Wasteland _ ëWhat the Thunder Saidí, from The Wasteland _ Joseph Conrad, Heart of Darkness (Penguin Twentieth-Century Classics, 1995) p.112 _ Jewel Spears Brooker, in Mastery and Escape: T.S. Eliot and the Dialectic of Modernism, p.86 _ T.S. Eliot, The Use of Poetry and the Use of Criticism, p.130 _ T.S. Eliot, The Use of Poetry and the Use of Criticism, p.140 _ ëBurnt Nortoní IV, from The Four Quartets _ ëThe Dry Salvagesí III, from The Four Quartets _ ëThe Dry Salvagesí III, from The Four Quartets _ ëEast Cokerí I, from The Four Quartets _ ëBurnt Nortoní III, from The Four Quartets _ ëEast Cokerí I, from The Four Quartets _ ëEast Cokerí V, from The Four Quartets _ T.S. Eliot, The Use of Poetry and the Use of Criticism, p.125 _ A Nietzsche Reader, translated by R.J Hollingdale, p.250 _ A Nietzsche Reader, translated by R.J Hollingdale, p.252 _ A Nietzsche Reader, translated by R.J Hollingdale, p.253 _ ëThe Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrockí from Prufrock and Other Observations _ ëThe Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrockí from Prufrock and Other Observations _ ëThe Dry Salvagesí II, from The Four Quartets _ The Hollow men, V _ ëBurnt Nortoní V, from The Four Quartets _ ëBurnt Nortoní V, from The Four Quartets _ ëBurnt Nortoní V, from The Four Quartets _ For the most part Eliotís poetry is not fascist; the echoes of this ideology probably find their origin in Eliotís friendship with the fascist Ezra Pound. However, this is irrelevant to the crux of my discussion. _ ëThe Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrockí from Prufrock and Other Observations _ Jewel Spears Brooker, in Mastery and Escape: T.S. Eliot and the Dialectic of Modernism, p.109 _ A Nietzsche Reader, translated by R.J Hollingdale, p.34 _ Ash Wednesday, I _ ëEast Cokerí II, from The Four Quartets _ A Nietzsche Reader, translated by R.J Hollingdale, p.44 _ Ash Wednesday, VI _ ëBurnt Nortoní I, from The Four Quartets _ ëBurnt Nortoní II, from The Four Quartets _ ëEast Cokerí II, from The Four Quartets _ Ash Wednesday, I _ Ash Wednesday, II §_§Ç._A¶__ß__®__©________#___u___|___}___?___@___U___V___ö __õ ___ __< __R __S __ __" __p __q __»___ÿ___L___M___Ë___È___I___J___Ö___Ü___ ___ ___Å___Ç___ï___ú_______<____¶___¶__ö¶__©¶__¶__÷¶__¶§__§§__X§__c§__À§__Ã§__÷_____Z__]_______¶__Q__R__________L___M_________L __O __ __ 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___!___"___#___$___%___&___'___(___)___*___+___,___-___.___/___0___1___2___3___4___5___6___7___8___9___:___;___<___=___>___?___@___A___B___C___D___E___F___G___H___I___N___"Q___@____F_#____@____Jf_:Q_@_____8]<y_@____,ø§<y_____ _______Ú ______O_____________·±·________________>___ ____________________________________________'Õ'ú._ìó__+,Æ0___¨___________H_______P_______\_______d_______l___ ___t_______|___ ___Ñ___________________ ______________©_______(___ _______ _______ _______________Craig Roberts _____________·±·________________>___ ________ ___ ______¿______F___Microsoft Word Document_ ___MSWordDoc_____Word.Document.6_Ù9_q_______________·±·_________________________________________ÖüÚOh_´ë__+'_ÿ0_______________ò______________________________<_______Ë_______Ù___________ ___________(___ ___P___ ___\___ ___h___ ___t_______Ä_______à_______ê_______ò___________________Craig Roberts ____________d_____ ___EDDY ROBERTS____________________________________Normal__________Craig roberts___________3___________Microsoft Word for Windows 95___<h_W_ ___¶_e_______________,p__Lî__________________i`__d _______________________________à__Ï____à__Ï___Ïà__f___Rä__Ù___ûå______ûå______ûå__¶___pç______Xç_____pç______pç______pç______pç__(___òç__"___pç______àì__1___ç______ç______ç______ç______ç______ç______ç______ç______.ë______0ë______0ë______0ë__A___që__`___Eí__`___ì______ì__X____î__;___7ì__Q___________________ûå______ç________9_?_____ç______ç______________________ç______ç______7ì______Ïè______Ïã_______ã______ç______________________ç______Ïè______Ïè______Ïè______ç__2___ûå______ç______ûå______ç______.ë______________¿_a<y__å__>____å__h___Fã__>___Ñã__h___ã__>___6å__h___ç______.ë______Ïè__B___Ïè____________________________________________________________________________________________Craig Roberts EN1108 David Rudrum To what extent does the poetry of T.S. Eliot reflect a sense of cultural crisis? In the latter part of the nineteenth century and in the beginning of this, the twentieth, science and other academic fields advanced to such extremes that cultural presuppositions underwent a re-evaluation. ìMen and bits of paper, [were] whirled by the cold windî_ and thrown into a maelstrom of intellectual crisis. As society re-structured its intellectual framework, new philosophies arose which attempted to make sense of existence (Bergson, Bradley, Freud and Nietzsche, to name but a few) and several of these philosophies may be traced within Eliotís poetry, for they are the tools for understanding the crisis. I feel it necessary to warn readers that what I am about to offer is ìa world of speculationî_; and my interpretation of some of these philosophies may be tainted by reading them in translation. Nonetheless, it is impossible to gauge the sense of crisis within Eliotís poetry, without some prior understanding of these conflicting ideologies. Eliot was confronted by a profoundly disturbing era, one full of intellectual turmoil. In ëBurnt Nortoní he presents the reader with this sense of intellectual anguish, for it is Desiccation of the world of sense, Evacuation of the world of fancy, Inoperancy of the world of spirit_ and in short, a world made unstable by developing knowledge. However, despite the intellectual crisis of the poetry, there is always a current of domestic scepticism; as Eliot muses in ëBurnt Nortoní, there are new processes of thought, ìBut to what purpose / Disturbing the dust on a bowl of rose-leaves / I do not knowî_. Nowhere is this conflict of domesticity and intellectualism more prominent than in ëThe Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrockí. It is an ambivalent poem, full of uncertainties and domestic imagery; but Prufrockís intellectualism -his desire to squeeze ìthe moment into a ball / To roll it towards some overwhelming questionî_ -is marred by his domestic, mundane considerations of life: he lacks ìthe strength to force the moment to its crisisî_. Indeed, this antagonism between the intellectual and the domestic, between the abstract and the real, indicates that such profound and ìoverwhelmingî questions may, in actuality, prove nothing more than unnecessary considerations, for they are not required to continue a domestic life of daily routine. Prufrock has a preoccupation with the ìbald spot in the middle of [his] hairî_ and, thus, is engrossed by his own mortality. Perhaps the desire to answer some profound question is the desire to reconcile ìthe agony / Of death and birthî_ , to form some idea of what lies beyond the human condition, beyond the sphere of the domestic. Eliot attempted to understand the human condition through various philosophical means: it is my intention to demonstrate how his poetry exemplifies the crisis of this philosophical climate. During January and February of 1911, Eliot was at the CollÈge de France, attending lectures by Bergson on the nature of time. Bergson pioneered the theory that ìall time is simultaneousî_: it is a flux which encompasses all; and ìthe true nature of reality is the process of life itself and not an intellectual construct extrapolated from itî_. 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